Dairy Biotechnology

Module 1. Introduction to biotechnology

Lesson 2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT (TIME LINE) OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

The term ‘Biotechnology’ was coined in 1917 by Karl Ereky, an Hungarian engineer. The term meant all the lines of work by which products were produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms such as bacteria. There is a common misconception that Biotechnology includes recombinant DNA technology and Genetic Engineering only. Biotechnology is NOT new. Man has been manipulating living things to solve problems and improve his way of life for millennia. Roots of Biotechnology can be traced back to 6000 B.C. when Sumerians fermented beer. In 4000 BC Egyptians used yeast to prepare bread and wine.

Dahi / curd and other milk fermentations had been in use in India since times immemorial during the Vedic period. Early agriculture was concentrated on producing food. Plants and animals were selectively bred and microorganisms were used to make food items such as beverages, cheese and bread. ‘New Biotechnology’ has emerged as a Biological revolution and led to creation of a world of ―Engineered products.

From historical perspective, biotechnology can be classified as ancient/old, classical and new/modern biotechnology.

2.2 Ancient Biotechnology

It began with early civilization. Our ancestors were producing wine, beer, and bread by using fermentation, a natural process in which the biological activity of one-celled organisms play a critical role. They also found that by manipulating the conditions under which the fermentation took place, they could improve both the quality and the yield of the ingredients themselves.

2.3 Classical Biotechnology

It followed ancient biotechnology which makes wide spread use of methods from ancient biotechnology especially fermentation methods adapted to industrial production. It produces large quantities of food products and other materials in short time to meet demands of increasing population.

2.4 Modern Biotechnology

It deals with manipulating genetic information. Microscopy and advanced computer technologies are used for in-depth knowledge of science. It is based on advancements in genetics research from the mid 1800‘s. In 1859, Darwin published his theory of evolution on the ’Origin of Species’. Use of biotechnology to produce new life forms emerged in mid 1900‘s and it was made possible by rDNA technology.

2.5 Milestones that Led to the Development and Advancement of Modern Biotechnology

The major milestones in science that laid the foundation of the modern biotechnology and their time lines are listed below in chronological order (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Milestones in biotechnology

•1977 onwards - Biotechnology era opened up (Dawn of Biotech era)

• 1977

• Genentech, Inc. (Company founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson in 1976) produced first human protein somatostatin from a transgenic bacterium which was considered as the advent of the Age of Biotechnology.
• Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam devised a method for sequencing DNA

• 1978

• Recombinant Human Insulin – produced at California by Herbert W. Boyer
• David Botstein discovered Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) technique for studying polymorphism

• 1980

• U.S. Supreme Court ruled that genetically altered life forms could be patented, thereby, allowing Exxon oil company to patent oil eating micro-organism.
• Kary Mullis and others at Cetus Corporation in Berkeley, California developed Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Sold patent for $300 Million in1991

• 1981

• First transgenic mice produced with rabbit beta-globin gene

• 1982

• USFDA approved sale of genetically engineered human insulin (first recombinant product to be marketed in US)

• Michael Smith at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, developed Site directed mutagenesis for making precise amino acid changes anywhere in a protein.

• 1983

• An automated DNA sequencer was developed

• A screening test for Huntingtons disease was developed using restriction fragment length markers.

• Eli Lilly received a license to make insulin commercially

• First transgenic plant ( a tobacco plant resistant to an antibiotic) was developed.

• 1984

• Alec Jeffreys’ introduced technique for DNA fingerprinting to identify individuals

• 1985

• Genetically engineered plants (transgenic plants) resistant to insects, viruses, and bacteria were field tested for the first time

• NIH approved guidelines for performing experiments in gene therapy (developed by Friedmann and Roblin in 1972) on humans

• 1986

• The FDA granted a license for the production of first recombinant vaccine (for hepatitis) to Chiron Corp.

• The EPA approved the release of the first genetically engineered crop, gene-altered tobacco plant.

• 1987

• Invention of YACs (yeast artificial chromosomes) to clone DNA fragments larger than 100 kb and up to 3000 kb

• Calgene, Inc., Davis, California received a patent for the tomato polygalacturonase DNA sequence, used to produce an antisense RNA sequence that could extend the shelf-life of fruits (FLAVR SAVR tomatoes).

• 1988

• Harvard molecular geneticists Philip Leder and Timothy Stewart awarded the first patent for a genetically altered animal, a mouse that was highly susceptible to breast cancer.

• 1989

• National Center for Human Genome Research was created to map and sequence all human DNA by 2005.

• 1990

• UCSF and Stanford issued their 100^th recombinant DNA patent and earning $40 million from the licenses by 1991.

• The first human gene therapy test involved a girl suffering from severe immune problems due to a defective gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA) Doctors removed some of her bone marrow cells, inserted functional ADA genes into these cells, and then inserting the "corrected" cells back in place.
  

• First transgenic dairy cow was created by GenPharm Int. Inc.

• Creation of genetically engineered cotton plants developed by Calgene Inc., Davis, California.

• 1992

• U.S. Army began "genetic dog tag" program which involved collection of blood and tissue samples from all new recruitees for identification of soldiers killed in combat.

• 1993

• Kary Mullis - Nobel Prize – Chemistry : PCR

• 1994

• Flavr Savr tomato was given approval by FDA for human consumption

• First linkage map of the human genome was prepared

• Recombinant GM-CSF approved for chemotherapy-induced neutropenia

• 1995

• First full gene sequence of a living organism was completed for Hemophilus influenzae

• Duke University Medical Center transplanted hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons, proving cross-species operations.

• Leptin gene identified to cause weight loss in experimental animals
  

• 1996

• Genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was sequenced

• A new inexpensive diagnostic biosensor test for the first time allowed instantaneous detection of the toxic strain of E. coli 0157:H7

• The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson‘s disease provided an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment

The Department of Biochemistry at Stanford and Affymetrix introduced a technological breakthrough in gene expression and DNA sequencing technology with the introduction of DNA chips, small glass or silica microchips that contained thousands of individual genes that can be analyzed simultaneously and are
extensively used these days

• 1997

• Dolly was cloned from the cell of an adult ewe

• DNA microarray technology was developed

• Scientists at Athersys in Cleveland, Ohio used a combination of natural and synthetic DNA to create a "genetic cassette" that could be customized and used in gene therapy. Genes on the artificial chromosome were expressed and replicated in cells

for over 6 months.

• 1998

• First genome Caenorhabditis elegans sequenced
• Human embryonic stem cells cultured in vitro
• Scientists at Japan‘s Kinki University cloned eight identical calves using cells
• RemicadeTM (infliximab) – marketing of a novel monoclonal antibody for treatment of Crohn’s disease
• Japan's Kinki University cloned eight identical calves wherein cells were taken from a single adult cow.
• Antibody therapy against breast cancer, HER2neu (Herceptin)- based on molecular
• targeting of tumor cells

• 1999

• 1,274 biotechnology companies were set up in the United States
• At least 300 biotechnology drug products and vaccines were under human clinical trials
• Development of Golden rice as a fortified food to meet shortage of dietary vitamin A
• The insect resistant corn hybrid seed developed by US based Mycogen seeds

• 2000

• Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics Inc. – announced a major mile stone in mapping the genome
• The world’s first cloned pigs produced from adult pig cells by Scotland based PPL Therapeutics Inc. – to produce organs for human transplant
• Genetically engineered golden rice modified to make pro-vitamin A by German scientists Prof. Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer
• First crop field tested in Kenya – virus resistant sweet potato

• 2001

• Genome sequence of rice decoded- first food crop to be sequenced
• Chinese National hybrid Researchers developed super rice plant varieties which can produce double the yield of normal rice

• 2002

• The first draft of a functional map of yeast proteome, an entire network of protein complexes and their interactions – completed by Germany based Cellzome AG, Heidelberg, Germany

• Human Cloning – on progressive path

• An International Consortium sequenced the genomes of malarial parasite Plasmodium and Anopheles mosquito
  

• Draft version of human genome published – ahead of schedule

• Vaccine for cervical cancer developed

• Stem cells discovered - Cancer Research UK scientists developed a new technique for transplanting stem cells into patients for advanced leukaemia and lymphoma

• 2003

• Complete knowledge of Human Genome (National Human Genome Research Institute) coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health and Celera Genomics

• Coronavirus responsible for SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) –genome sequenced

• 2004

• Beginning of Genomics and Proteomics era
• Stem cell era
• International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP) completed the Japanese rice variety Nipponbare genome sequence
• The first omega-3 rich mammals (mice) produced. The transgenic pigs were created using technology for mice capable of making omega-3 fatty acids.
• Several vaccines for diseases like Brain cancer, Anthrax, Plague and HIV/AIDS developed
• The FDA approved the first anti-angiogenic drug for cancer, AVASTIN® (bevacizumab)

• 2005

• Golden Rice 2 which produced up to 23 times more beta-carotene than the original variety of golden rice produced.

• Roche, the Swiss pharmaceutical maker made a drug Tamiflu for staving off bird flu.

• A cow cloned from the cells of a carcass was successfully produced at University of Georgia

• National Institute of Health in December launched a pilot project to determine the feasibility of The Cancer Genome Atlas to know the genomic changes involved in all types of human cancer.

• Scientists at Harvard University could successfully convert skin cells into embryonic stem cells through fusion with existing embryonic stem cells.

• A soybean genome project was launched jointly by USDA, Monsanto and Genaissance Pharmaceuticals.

• A consortium of scientists led by the National Human Genome Research Institute published the dog genome, which belonged to a 12-year-old boxer.

• 2006

• The genetic test, Oncotype DX^TM for breast cancer was developed by the biotech company Genomic Health and was made commercially available.

• A joint venture of Monsanto and Cargill i.e Renessen LLC received approval from USDA to begin selling the first crop improved through biotechnology with added benefits for use in animal feed. The product, Mavera™ High Value Corn with Lysine was improved to grow with increased levels of lysine, an amino acid that is essential for animal diets, especially those of swine and poultry.

• Researchers developed pigs that produced high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. The biotech pigs were developed by inserting the "fat-1" gene from Caenorhabditis elegans. The biotech pigs were cloned, and six of the 10 clones produced increased levels of omega-3 fatty acids, which are believed to ward off heart disease.

• 2007

• James Watson became the second person to publish his fully sequenced genome online after it was presented to him on May 31, 2007 by 454 Life Sciences Corporation in collaboration with scientists at the Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine which opened up an era of personalized medicine.

• At Oregon Health and Science University, Shoukhrat Mitalipov and his team cloned a Rhesus Monkey and used the resulting embryo to create stem cells.

• 2008

• Growing a new organ from a patient‘s own stem cells –opened the era of regenerative medicine

• Stem cell technique named scientific breakthrough of the year. The process that involves turning back the clock on adult tissue and "reprogramming" it with the properties of stem cells, could lead to new treatments for diseases including Parkinson's and diabetes.

• 2009

• The genome of a zebrafish was decoded by Indian Scientists at Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB), New Delhi

• Samrupa was the first cloned buffalo born on February 6, 2009, at National Diary Research Institute, India.

• 2010

• King Tut and 10 other royal mummies recently became the first ancient Egyptians to get their DNA analyzed. The results, published in Feb., 2010 Journal of the American Medical Association, turned up a treasure trove of new information about the famous boy king, his family and Egyptian royalty in general.

• Indian scientists Drs. Vinod Scaria and Sridhar Sivasubbu — the two young scientists from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) have successfully sequenced the human genome of Indian origin.

• J. Craig Venter created the synthetic life form by building a genome from scratch and used it to control a cell.

• Cloned buffalo calf - Garima-II weighing 32 kg, born through caesarian operation through the new and advanced ’Hand-guided Cloning Technique', at NDRI, Karnal, on June 6, 2010

• A male calf Shresth weighing 41 kg was born at NDRI on August 26, 2010 using hand-guided cloning technique.

• 2011

• Researchers at Nanyang Technological University have genetically engineered suicide bombers i.e. Escherichia coli to attack and kill Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is responsible for many infections in hospital patients whose immune systems are weakened.

Biotechnology developments goes on and on ---------------- Biotechnology is the promise of tomorrow and hope for the future!

Further Reading

Books

Basic Biotechnology, 2nd Edition Colin Ratledge and Bjorn Kristiansen (Eds), Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 0521779170

Introduction to Biotechnology Brown, C.M., Campbell, I and Priest, F.G.
Panima Publishing Corporation, 2005. ISBN : 81-86535-42-X

Introduction to Biotechnology, 2nd Edition Thieman, W.J and Pallidino, M.A. (Eds) New York : Pearson, 2009
ISBN : 978-0-321-58903-3

Internet Resources

en.wikipedia.org

biotechnologyhelp.com

www.northcarolinalifescience.com

www.bloomsburyacademic.com

www.brad.ac.uk