Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 12

MECHANICS OF STYLE; FOOTNOTES; BIBLIOGRAPHIC PROCEDURES

12.1  Introduction

‘Mechanics of Style” includes use of abbreviations, capitalization, punctuation and symbols is generally known as.  “Mechanics of Style” is equally important and has a bearing on the clarity of the writing. Besides the lesson contains some of the key points related to Footnotes, Bibliographic Procedures and Précis writing.

12.2  Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations and symbols used in scientific writing generally contribute to economy of words and clarity. Abbreviations are curtailed versions of words. Symbols need not always bear a direct relationship to the words (phrases) that they present.

Symbols may be used to represent quantities, units of measurement, mathematical operations, and objects and their components. Symbols of units are generally standardized within each system of measurement. The International System of Units (SI), has as standard set of units and symbols, which are used by and large in all the countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement.

There are no absolute rules about abbreviations. However, there are certain guidelines that you may follow in abbreviating names and technical terms.

In British English, the general rule about abbreviating words is that an abbreviation should be suggestive of the source word.

A period is not used at the end of the abbreviated form of the word if the abbreviation includes the last letter of the word; a period is used if the abbreviation does not contain the last letter. e.g.

·        Chem. for Chemistry or Chemical

·        Memo. For Memorandum

· Mx for Middlesex

· dept. for department

Exceptions: log (for logarithm) Mr. (for Mister)

12.2.1  Acronyms

In names consisting of several words, the abbreviation is generally formed with the first letter of the key words, each followed by a period.  The capital letters in the name to be abbreviated are retained in the abbreviation. In certain abbreviations like SAARC, which can be pronounced like a single word, the periods may be omitted. Such abbreviations are called acronyms. Some of them, after prolonged use, are treated like common words, as Unesco etc.

12.2.2  Technical Acronyms

They may be written in all capital letters (DDT, DNA) or in lower case (laser, radar) while some may have only the initial letter in capital (Fortran, Cobol).

· Some names consisting of several words are abbreviated by selecting more than one letter from each key word, and the first letter of prepositions and articles, where necessary.

· Such abbreviations can generally be pronounced like a single word e.g.

§ Comintern (for Communist International)

§ Benelux   (for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg)

· In abbreviating units of measurement consisting of more than one word, the standard practice is to retain the period after each word unless the name refers to the product or combination of the units represented by the individual words. e.g. e. m. f. (electromotive force), r. m. s. (root mean square), sp. gr.(specific gravity)

· Don’t use abbreviations in your sentences unless the whole word or phrase is repeated several times within a short passage or you see a definite advantage in using the abbreviation.

· If your reader is not likely to be familiar with an abbreviation, define it the first time it occurs in your writing.

· If you are using numerals in your writing, the names of the accompanying units should properly be abbreviated; if the numbers are expressed in words, don’t abbreviate the names of the units. e.g.  15 A fuse; fifteen ampere fuse

· Abbreviated names of units are preferred in all tabulated information and numerical data accompanying illustrations.

· Abbreviations are mostly used, in preference to the full form, in footnotes, tables and bibliographies.

· These are used in text only in exceptional cases.

· Abbreviations for words are written without intervening space, and the general tendency is now to eliminate the full stop not only between the letters forming an abbreviation, but also at the end.

· The abbreviations, except for those desired from proper names, are written in lower case, in roman with no end, or middle full stops.

· And except for the units of currencies, they are always placed at the end of the figures.

· The standard abbreviations for the common metric units are as follows:

Table 12.1 Technical acronym

Units	Symbols	Units	Symbols
milimetre	mm	miligram	mg
centimetre	cm	gram	g
metre	m	kilogram	kg
kilometre	km	quintal	q
Square metre	M^2	hour	h
Cubic metre	M^3	minute	min
second	s	hour	h

12.3  Footnotes

Footnotes have a pronounced effect on style, general tone and clarity. Every footnote is a digression from the main stream of thought.  It interrupts the reader. If he reads it, his eyes must make an excursion to the bottom of the page; and when he is through, he must find the place where he departed from it. Lengthy footnotes can cause the reader to lose the thread of your message, to miss what you are trying to tell him.

12.3.1  Reference footnotes

When we borrow the words or ideas of somebody else, we must give credit for them. Reference footnotes are convenient to fulfill this obligation.

12.3.2  Explanatory footnotes

Explanatory Footnotes can practically never be justified on the grounds of necessity. Explanatory Footnotes should be evaluated carefully. Explanatory Footnotes should either be integrated into the main text or put in parenthesis, if they are of secondary importance.  Some of the information, if really of some use for record purposes, can be given in the appendix. As far as possible, explanatory footnotes should be avoided.

12.4  Indexing and Bibliographic Procedures

We keep a list of books, articles, and other sources that seem promising for our paper.  Such a record is called a working bibliography. Our preliminary reading will probably provide the first titles for this list. Other titles will emerge when we consult the library catalog, as well as indexes, bibliography, and other reference works. We discover additional important sources also through the bibliography and notes of each book and article consulted by us.

The working bibliography will frequently change as new titles are added and those that do not prove useful are eliminated. The working bibliography will eventually evolve into the list of works cited that appears at the end of the research paper.

· Many instructors recommend that students use index cards to compile the working bibliography.

· Writing each source on a separate index card allows greater flexibility than does listing sources on a sheet of paper.

· These cards can be arranged and rearranged as per the need. (e.g. in alphabetical order, in chronological order by date of publication, in order of relevance to your topic)

· Index cards also allow us to divide sources into groups (e.g. those already consulted and those not yet consulted, those most useful and those less so).

· Similar results can be achieved with a personal computer.

· A computer file is created for the working bibliography, and titles are entered as we proceed with the research. The file can be revised by additions or deletions as per the requirements and then saved for the future use.

· As with index cards, we are able to arrange, rearrange, and group sources.  At any point, the file can be printed to review it or to use it for research.

· When we add sources to the working bibliography, we have to be sure that we have all the publication information needed for the works cited list.  The information to be recorded depends on the kind of sources used. It could be :

Books

–     Articles in a Scholarly Journal

–     Newspaper or Magazine Article

12.5  Format for Citing a Reference Book

1.      Author’s full name (last name first)

2.      Full title (including any subtitle)

3.      Editor or translator (if there is one)

4.      Edition (if the book is a second or later edition)

5.      Number of the volume and the total number of volumes (if the book is a multi  volume work)

6.      Series name (if the book is part of a series)

7.      City of publication (note only the first city if several   are listed)

8.      Publisher

9.      Year of publication

Example: Budden, Julian.The Operas of Verdi. Trans. Thomas Colchie. Rev. ed. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.

Chaucer, Geoffery. The Works of Geoffery Chaucer.  Ed. F. W. Robinson. 2^nd ed. Twayne’s World Authors Ser. 679. Boston: Twayne, 1957.

12.6  Format for Citing a Reference Article in a Scholarly Journal

1.     Author’s name 

2.     Title of the article

3.     Title of the journal

4.     Volume number (and issue number, if needed)

5.     Year of publication

6.     Inclusive page numbers of the article ( i.e. the number of the page on which the article begins, a hyphen, and the number of the page on which the article ends)

Example: Vartanov, Anri. “Television as Spectacle and Myth.” Journal of Communication 41.2 (1991):162-71.

12.7  Format for Citing a Reference Newspaper or Magazine Article

1.     Author’s name

2.     Title of the article

3.     Title of the periodical

4.     Date of publication

5.     Inclusive page numbers of the article or the initial page number followed by a plus sign, as appropriate.

Example:  Shea, Christopher. “The Limits of Free Speech.” Chronicle of Higher Education, 1 Dec. 1993: A37-38.

Feder, Barnaby J. “For Job Seekers, a Toll –Free Gift of Expert Advice.” New York Times, 30 Dec. 1993, late ed.: D1+.

· For a book, check the author’s name, title, subtitle (if any), edition (if relevant), editor or translator (if there is one), volume number and number of volumes, series name (if the book is part of a series), city of publications, publisher, and year of publication. (This information normally appears on the title and copyright pages of the book).

· For an article in a periodical, check the author’s name, title of the article, title of the periodical, date of publication, and, as appropriate, inclusive page numbers or initial page number.  If the periodical is a scholarly journal, check the volume number (and, if needed, issue number) as well, (Volume numbers and dates of publication normally appear on the title page of journals).

· Eventually, you will transform your working bibliography into a works cited list.

· The working bibliography functions as an efficient tool for finding and acquiring information and ideas and, on the other, provides all the data we need for the list of works cited.