Dairy Biotechnology

Module 5. Application of biotechnology in dairying

Lesson 25
APPLICATION AND IMPACT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY ON FOOD INDUSTRY

25.1 Introduction

Staple food constitutes the most indispensable and basic need of man for fulfilling minimal nutritional requirements to sustain human life on earth. Man has been traditionally depending upon agriculture and livestock to meet food demands since times immemorial. It is obligatory on the part of all Governments to provide safe, wholesome and nutritious foods to their citizens belonging to all the sections of society. A healthy diet can play a significant role in creating a healthy mind and healthy society in the country. Adequately nourished and healthy citizens can serve as the work force in building a Nation by boosting the growth, prosperity and productivity. However, the overall quality and safety of food commodities can be considerably influenced by the food processing and packaging to provide optimal nutritive value to the consumers. With the advent of new scientific knowledge and technological innovations, food sector is witnessing a phenomenal growth across the world particularly in developed countries. Although, developing countries like India are the potential markets for variety of such processed foods, their indigenous food processing industry is still in the transition stage to adopt modern and advanced food processing tools to compete with the developed countries. One such powerful technique that can be very promising and highly relevant to food processing industry in countries like India is the Biotechnology. By judiciously applying biotechnological tools and processes, the quality, safety and nutritive value of processed foods can be improved considerably with lot of value addition.

25.2 Role of Biotechnology in Food Sector

Biotechnology has already benefitted the food industry in a big way. It has given us high quality foods that are tasty, nutritious, wholesome, convenient, shelf stable and safe. As research and development initiatives continue, it seems inevitable that biotechnology will have an increasing impact on the food we eat. It offers huge potential for increasing the range and quality of food available to us, particularly more nutritious and palatable foods. It also seems likely that it will continue to bring advantages to the processing and safety monitoring of food supply due to emergence of new technologies at a faster pace.

Although, traditional biotechnology that makes use of natural microbial fermentations has been playing a vital role in the development of our food supplies such as cheese and yoghurt-making and the use of yeast to leaven bread and ferment alcohol.for thousands of years,,the second-generation food biotechnology is based on initiatives to screen enzymes and micro-organisms in the natural environment and exploit them for useful applications such as food ingredients, microbial fermentation to manufacture several products like lactic acid, citric acid and other flavor enhancers etc. However, the major focus is now on exploring the modern biotechnology which is based on a combination of molecular genetics, applied enzymology and fermentation technology for value addition to foods. It is the modern Biotechnology which is becoming increasingly important part of the over all efforts to improve methods of food production and to increase the variety, quality and safety of foods we eat.

25.3 Potential Areas in Food Processing for Biotechnological Applications

There are several potential areas in the food industry where the traditional and modern biotechnological tools can be applied during processing for the overall improvement of the nutritional quality, safety and health promoting attributes of the processed foods specifically with regard to the dairy based fermented products. Some of the potential areas of considerable commercial interest in food industry that can be targeted for biotechnological interventions are listed below:

1. Food fermentations
2. Starter cultures technology and genetic manipulation
3. Recombinant Enzymes
4. Biopreservation of foods
5. Functional / Health foods and Nutraceuticals
6. Probiotics, prebiotics and symbiotic foods
7. Genetically modified foods ( GM Foods )
8. Milk derived bioactive peptides and other functional ingredients
9. Low calorie foods
10. Food packaging
11. Diagnostic tests for food safety and quality assurance
12. Biosensors

The scope and impact of biotechnological interventions in these areas will be briefly described and highlighted below:

25.3.1 Food fermentations

Biotechnology as applied to food processing makes use of microbial inoculants to enhance properties such as the taste, aroma, shelf-life, texture and nutritional value of foods. The process whereby micro-organisms and their enzymes bring about these desirable changes in food materials is known as fermentation. Fermentation processing is also widely applied in the production of microbial cultures, enzymes, flavours, fragrances, food additives and a range of other high value-added products. These high value products are increasingly produced in more technologically advanced developing countries for use in their food and non-food processing applications. Fermentation is one of the oldest biotechnological processes traditionally used by man since time immemorial for food preservation. Fermented foods such as bread, beer, wine, vinegar, sauerkraft, pickles etc. and traditional products like dahi, lassi and shrikhand account for one third of the human diet across the world. Other fermented dairy products such as cheese, yoghurt, kumis, kefir and others like sausages and soya sauce etc. are now being produced commercially and marketed globally. Food fermentations contribute substantially to food safety and food security particularly during the off season when there is decline in the production of raw material. The fermentation bioprocess is one of the major biotechnological applications in food processing and often constitutes an important step in a sequence of food-processing operations, which may include cleaning, size reduction, soaking and cooking. Fermentation bioprocessing makes use of microbial inoculants for enhancing properties such as the taste, aroma, shelf-life, safety, texture and nutritional value of foods. Microbes associated with the raw food material and the processing environment serve as inoculants in spontaneous fermentations, while inoculants containing high concentrations of live micro-organisms, referred to as starter cultures, are used to initiate and accelerate the rate of fermentation processes in non-spontaneous or controlled fermentation processes.. Current literature documents volumes of research reports on the characterization of microbes associated with the production of traditional fermented foods in developing countries. The development and improvement of microbial cultures has been a driving force for the transformation of traditional food fermentations in developing countries from an “art” to a science. Microbial culture development has also been a driving force for innovation in the design of equipment suited to the hygienic processing of traditional fermented foods under controlled conditions in many developing countries.

Improvements in the commercially important properties of microbial cultures, together with the improvement and development of bioreactor technology for the control of fermentation processes in developed countries, has played a pivotal role in the production of high-value products such as enzymes, novel microbial cultures, and functional food ingredients. These products are produced in more advanced developing economies, and are increasingly imported by less advanced developing countries, as inputs for their food processing. Although, the fermentation technology has been in vogue for many years in different countries, the output resulting from these technologies is not very high and hence needs optimization to minimize losses and maximize product recovery to make the technology efficient, commercially viable and cost effective. Microbial cultures can be genetically manipulated using both traditional and molecular approaches to improve their fermentation characteristics for producing better quality fermented foods through enhanced enzymatic activity and flavor development. However, genetic improvement of bacteria, yeasts and moulds has often been the subject of intensive debate because of safety and health concerns likely to be associated with such genetically modified microbes.

25.3.2 Starter culture technology in food fermentations and their genetic manipulation

One of the most important areas relevant to food processing industry is the use of lactic starter cultures. Starter cultures, comprising of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) such as lactococci, lactobacilli, pediococci and propioni bacteria are used in the production of cultured dairy products such as dahi, yogurt and cheese etc. A starter culture is bound to provide particular characteristics in a more controlled and predictable fermentation. The availability of good starter bacteria is an essential pre-requisite for preparing quality fermented foods. The commercial value of the fermented products is, therefore, chiefly dependent upon the performance of the starter cultures. With the days of spontaneous fermentation and back slopping far behind us, we dwell in an era where the burgeoning fermented milk industry today demands “multifunctional” or “tailor made” starters fulfilling technical and metabolic requirements. Utility of starters go beyond imparting preservation and palatability to the final product. They could be selected for accelerated acid, flavor and, bacteriocin production in the fermented food to suppress spoilage and pathogenic bacteria apart from expressing additional health promoting functions. The deliberate use of functional traits within bacteria is supported by knowledge on their phylogenctics, characterization of genome structure and flexibility, gene regulation and gene functionality particularly in relation to their commercially important traits. The strategies used for genetic manipulation of lactic starters to enhance their commercially important metabolic activities in the fermented foods for value addition have been described previously.

Recent advances in the field of metabolic engineering, genomics, and bioinformatics are expected to contribute to the future development of functional starter cultures to be used for food processing industry. Exploration studies of the natural diversity of wild strains occurring in traditional, artisan foods, fermented dairy products etc. along with newer approaches such as comparative genomics, microarray analysis, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, will generate useful information leading to the generation of new, industrial starter strains with increased diversity, stability, and industrial performance. These techniques will permit rapid, high-throughput screening of promising wild strains with interesting functional properties and lacking negative characteristics, as well as the construction of genetically modified starter cultures with a tailored functionality. Bioinformatics can be used to search genomes for essential components, for instance with regard to flavor\ development, such as peptidases, amino-transferases, enzymes for biosynthesis of amino acids, and transport systems for peptides and amino acids.

25.3.3 Recombinant enzymes

Food industry is constantly in search of advanced technologies to meet consumer demand for nutritionally balanced and safe food products. Enzymes are a useful biotechnological processing tool whose action can be controlled in the food matrix to produce high quality products. The emerging area of enzyme engineering addresses the requirement of food processing sector, reducing the investment and the processing cost dramatically. Currently-used food enzymes are extracted from animals and plants (for example, a starch-digesting enzyme, amylase, can be obtained from germinating barley seeds) but most of the enzymes come from beneficial micro-organisms by large scale fermentation through optimization of temperature, nutrients and air supply and later purified. Fermentation-derived enzymes are now the tools of choice for the innovative food processing industry. Moreover, several of the enzymes used in food processing industries are produced using recombinant micro-organisms. The industrial production of enzymes for use in food processing dates back to 1874 when Danish scientist Christian Hansen extracted rennin (chymosin) from calves’ stomachs for use in cheese manufacturing. Bovine chymosin was the first enzyme to be produced through biotechnological approaches in E. coli. Since then, genetic manipulation has been used to make tailor made enzymes for specific consumer requirement. Now enzymes can be produced through recombinant DNA technology in large quantities for their subsequent application in food industry. Some of the recombinant enzymes produced through genetic engineering approaches are given the following Table 25.1

Table 25.1 Recombinant enzymes produced through genetic engineering and their application in foods

Most of these enzymes including bovine, goat or buffalo rennet are now being produced through rDNA technology for commercial applications in the food industry. Although, these recombinant enzymes are highly cost effective, their application in foods require approval from the regulatory agencies (DBT) from safety point of view.

25.3.4 Biopreservation of foods

Although, recent developments in innovative modern technologies implemented in food processing and more stringent microbiological food-safety standards have reduced the incidences of food borne illnesses and product spoilage, they can not completely rule out the possibility of health risks associated with such foods. Improved food safety has been achieved through drastic physical treatments like high temperatures, high pressure technology as well as chemical preservatives. Toxicity of many of the commonest chemical preservatives (e.g. nitrites, sulphites), the alteration of the organoleptic and nutritional properties of foods, and especially consumers demand for safe and minimally processed foods without chemical additives have necessitated the need for alternative food grade safe biopreservatives. Hence, the food industry is constantly looking for new procedures and methods to produce minimally processed, ready to eat food with intact nutritional, taste, and flavor. Biopreservation of ready to eat processed foods is one such safe approach. It is defined as the extension of shelf life and safety of foods using the natural food grade antimicrobial compounds that are of plant, animal and microbial origin and do not pose any adverse effect on human health. The most common form of biopreservation of food products is through fermentation. The fermentation is brought about by food grade GRAS status lactic acid bacteria (LAB) belonging to lactococci, lactobacilli, streptococci, pediococci, leuconostocs etc. which are being extensively used as starter cultures in the manufacture of dairy, meat and vegetable food products. These bacteria preserve the nutritional qualities along with inhibition of pathogenic and spoilage organisms due to the production of organic acids, hydrogen peroxide as well as proteinaceous metabolites such as bacteriocins.

25.3.5 Functional / Health foods and nutraceuticals

Functional/health foods and /nutarceuticals are currently the focus of attention across the world because of their immense health potentials and commercial value. Although, the term “functional foods” currently lacks a common definition, this category is generally thought to include products that influence specific functions in the body and thereby offer benefits for health, well-being or performance, beyond their regular nutritional value. The concept of functional foods is not new as its origin dates back to prehistoric days. The old practice of using specific foods for some ailments figured prominently in ancient Hindu scriptures like Sushrita. The famous Greek physician Hippocrates also strongly advocated this concept through his tenet “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”. However, the relevance of this concept gained sudden momentum during the last few decades due to unprecedented interest evoked amongst the health conscious consumers. This has been largely attributed to radical change in the modern lifestyle and perception of consumers towards their diet beyond nutrition. As a result of shift in the mindset of consumers towards the linkage of diet with their health, the commercial interest in functional food market has grown enormously and there is a boom in the functional foods and nutraceutical products in the market as can be reflected from the availability of variety of health foods in the food counters. The driving forces behind the reemergence of functional food concept in the present context is driven by a number of factors including the increasing life expectancy of people, quest for safe alternative to drugs, self care movement, rising health care costs, overwhelming scientific evidences to link diet with health, advances in food and ingredients technology for product diversification and the greater media coverage given to these high profile foods with novel health claims These products result from technological innovations, such as cholesterol lowering spreads, xylitol sweetened chewing gum and dairy products fermented with specific lactic acid bacteria, or are from a naturally functional food such as soy, oats and grains high in fiber. Functional foods have been developed in most food categories and the global market size is conservatively estimated to exceed that for organic foods. In addition to providing new options for improving health and well-being, the functional foods sector offers potential for new economic opportunities.

Biotechnology has a key role to play in this new industry. Traditionally, the application of biotechnology techniques in the food industry focused on the major energy-providing foods, such as bread, alcohol, fermented starch, yogurt, cheese, vinegar, and others. More recently, there has been increased interest in biologically active non-nutritive ingredients from natural products like herbals or foods. The functional food concept has in recent years moved progressively towards the development of dietary supplements that may affect the intestinal microbial composition and activities and hence may influence the gut health. In this context, dairy based food products which form an integral part of our diet can be very attractive candidate for application as functional or health foods after fortification / supplementation with novel bioactive ingredients which have the ability to trigger general health promoting and specific physiological functions in the host. These bioactive ingredients include Probiotics/ prebiotics, bioactive peptides, biotherapeutic proteins, omega 3, CLA to low calorie sugars, PUFA, isoflavones etc. which can be added to dairy foods to enhance their functionality for protecting health of the consumers against chronic diseases such as gastro-intestinal illnesses, CVD, strokes, hypertension, diabetes, cancers etc.

Major breakthroughs have occurred and enormous progress has been made in this area of considerable health significance during the past few decades due to new advancements in biotechnological tools particularly with regard to genetic engineering and biotechnology. Nutrigenomics is the new era in the development of third generation of health/functional foods and is expected to revolutionize wellness and disease management across the world. Very soon need based customized health foods with specific bioactive functions intended for the target population will appear at the counters in the super markets and food outlets. This effort, however, requires a strong proactive synergy between Food and Pharmaceutical industry as well as Nutritionists, Biotechnologists and Dietetic and Medical professionals

25.3.6 Probiotics as functional foods

The term “probiotics” refers to live microorganisms that confer a health benefit to the host when ingested in adequate amounts (FAO/WHO, 2002). They are usually bacteria selected from species found in the intestinal tract. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are the two key members of this group used extensively in the production of probiotic food formulations for health applications across the world particularly in the developed countries. Milk and milk products specifically fermented dairy foods are considered as excellent carriers of probiotic strains to express their health promoting functions most optimally. Probiotic microorganisms may be concentrated and added directly to a food or to a milk product in small amounts and allowed to grow. Yoghurt is a classical example of a functional food with probiotics. Yoghurt with probiotics, called bio-yoghurt, should contain living bacterial cultures. Probiotics have been used as dietary supplements and oral agents for intestinal disorders. Probiotics have recently emerged as one of the most valuable bugs on account of expressing a multitude of novel health promoting functions which are highly strain specific. The most notable probiotic functions include immuno-modulation, restoring the balance of disturbed gut flora, strengthening the mucosal barrier function, prevention of lactose intolerance etc. However, the current focus of attention is to explore probiotics as possible biotherapeutics against chronic inflammatory metabolic disorders such as diabetes, CVD,,obesity, irritable bowel disease (IBD) and syndrome (IBS), Ulcerative Colitis (UC), Crohn’s disease (CD), acute diarrhea, serum cholesterol reduction, shortening of the duration of respiratory infections, blood pressure control, colon cancer, and urinary tract infection (UTI) etc. Because of their immense health potentials, probiotics are now recognized as the vital health care concept of 21st century. Probiotics are one of the fastest growing food category within functional foods. And, as the list of health benefits accredited to them continues to expand, so does their use in new dairy and functional food applications. (Table 25.2).

Table 25.2 List of some popular brands of dairy based probiotic foods and probiotic strains used therein with different health claims

Recent advances in biotechnological tools such as genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, PCR and availability of whole genome sequences of common probiotic strains, have improved the prospects of designing novel probiotics with improved functional efficacy and safety for human health applications and new product development. The most notable novel recombinant probiotic at present is a derivative of Lb. johnsonii La1. La1 is a well characterized probiotic strain used extensively in commercial preparation of probiotic foods due to its strong health-related attributes and positive immuno-modulatory effects on the host. Milk fermented with this culture normally produces a racemic mixture of D and L-lactate in the ratio 60:40. Presence of D-lactate in milk fermented with La1 and ability of the strain to produce D-lactate after ingestion does not pose any problem to most of the adult population. But, it can indeed cause D-acidosis and encephalopathy in patients suffering from bowel syndrome and intestinal failures, and in new born infants with immature liver. However, inactivation of the single copy D-lactate dehydrogenase (LdhD) gene of La1 resulted in rerouting of pyruvate mainly to L-lactate with no D-lactate production. This novel strain has the same beneficial properties as the parent probiotic while the absence of D-lactate makes it a safer alternative for specific populations.

Amongst several other possibilities is the design of recombinant strains with novel properties that confer competitive advantage to their survival. One way to accomplish this strategy is by expressing and secreting colicin V, a narrow host range antibacterial bacteriocin produced by E. coli in La1. This strategy has allowed the expression and secretion of the Gram negative antimicrobial in probiotic organisms to extend their inhibitory spectrum to Gram negative enteropathogens too. Established probiotic lactobacilli can also serve as attractive candidates for oral vaccination against HIV, tetanus, Rota virus, E. coli, Salomonella and H. pylori etc. in view of their long history of safe use, ease of oral administration, low intrinsic immunogenicity and extensive industrial handling experience. Robust genetically engineered probiotic bacteria have also been developed by applying powerful genetic engineering techniques for better survival and stability during the harsh technological processing conditions used in the product development and hostile gut environment. In foods, genetically engineered bacteria have been used to improve the flavor and stability, or to block the formation of unwanted flavors. Metabolic engineering and Genetic engineering should make it possible to strengthen the effects of existing bacterial strains and create new ones. Global gene and protein expression techniques as well as metabolomics are now extensively being used to provide evidence of probiotic adaptations in food products, their survival and host-microbe interactions in the mammalian gut. However, acceptance of genetically engineered probiotics in product development is a subject of intensive debate due to long term safety and public health concerns and requires approval from the regulatory bodies constituted for this purpose in the country.

25.3.7 Genetically modified and transgenic foods

Within the last two decades, the application of recombinant DNA techniques in the production of foods and food ingredients has developed from the level of basic research into a commercial business. From the very beginning, development and use of genetic engineering have been accompanied by strict regulations. These regulatory requirements cover the contained use of genetically modified organisms (GMO), their deliberate release into the environment as well as the placing on the market of products containing or consisting of GMO. So far, there is no report on any adverse effects on humans resulting from the consumption of foods produced by application of recombinant DNA techniques. Nevertheless, the sensitive nature of the subject (ethical issues) and the speed of the developments elicited fear among consumers. Potential hazards of the new technology are automatically projected into risks. In most developed countries, the willingness to accept such (perceived) risks is low, because the first generation of GM foods (herbicide-tolerant, insect-resistant crops and products thereof) were of no obvious advantage to regular consumers. The potential of recombinant DNA techniques in food production goes far beyond the applications reported so far. However, the benefits expected from the next generation of GM crops (improved nutritional value, functional foods) will result in new issues (complex metabolic changes, significant impact on overall nutritional status) and thus will pose new challenges in terms of food safety assessment. Nevertheless, it continues to be a grey area with high commercial stakes and as a result of that, the list of GMO and transgenic foods/crops has been expanding steadilty (Table 25.3) While consumers accept the functional food concept readily, the acceptance of novel foods as they are defined according to the EU Regulation (EC, 1997), and particularly transgenic food, is controversial.

Table 25.3 Genetically modified foods/crops with regard to specific traits for value addition

GMO Database. http://www.gmo-compass.org

Complementary to conventional breeding techniques, gene technology allows the transfer of genes between unrelated species. Thereby, breeding targets can also be achieved more quickly both in plant and animal breeding. This is one of the key, but hotly debated technologies of our times. Important topics that need to be addressed vary from legislation, such as labeling requirements, to safety and environmental issues. Concerns about application of this agricultural biotechnology are on the ecological impact of growing genetically modified foods, the impact of these crops on biological diversity, and on the safety of food supply, or the development of resistance by insect pests. However, the potential of the agricultural new biotechnologies is enormous also for developing countries. Therefore, questions about agricultural biotechnology must be addressed for people in both developed and developing countries, as we have to address the issue of food security for a world population of some 9000 million people in the year 2050. Furthermore, genetic engineering is not just a new technology for crop improvement, it is a powerful research tool that is helping to provide fresh and better insights of molecular mechanisms involved in biological processes.

25.3.8 Milk derived bioactive components

Milk and milk products are functional foods. Milk contains bioactive components beyond proteins, minerals and vitamins. These minor elements include immunoglobulins, hormones, growth factors, cytokines, nucleotides, polyamines, enzymes and bioactive peptides. Many bioactive peptides are embedded within milk proteins and remain inactive until released and activated by gastrointestinal digestion or during food processing. Bioactive peptides are naturally found in milk, fermented milk and cheese. Successful commercialization of milk bioactives is dependent upon developing new technologies for their production, producing innovative food and health ingredients, studying the mechanisms of actions, and conducting clinical studies to verify health effects. These bioactive peptides have been reported to exhibit anti-hypertensive activity, immune-modulatory properties and antimicrobial activity against high risk pathogens and hence can play a very important role in alleviation of gut related diseases such as peptic ulcers. Whey proteins such as lactoferrin, beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin also enhance immune cell function. The metabolic activity of probiotic lactic acid bacteria generates de novo immunoregulatory peptides from milk via enzymatic degradation of parent milk proteins. Opioids refer to natural opiates (opium) and synthetic narcotics (i.e. morphine, heroin) that induce sleep and soothe pain. The opioid agonists in milk peptides, derived from casein or whey protein, have shown morphine-like activity. For example, caseinomorphins prolong gastrointestinal transit time, prevent diarrhea, stimulate secretion of insulin and somatostatin and could play a role in appetite suppression. Opioid antagonists such as casoxins and casoplatelins block the agonist effect of externally administered opioids and enkephalin (the endogenous neurotransmitter) thus affecting the release of pain-reducing endorphins.

25.3.9 Packaging of processed foods

The rising sales of convenience processed foods / ready to eat foods and developments in their packaging have been a major issue in innovative packaging to attract the consumers. Packaging techniques have developed to an extent to provide very attractively packed foods and consumers are prepared to pay a premium for quality and safe ready to eat foods. Modern consumers being highly health conscious and with the improvement in economy and rising financial status, demand for bottled water, fruit and vegetable juices, milk drinks and milk products, functional foods, sausages etc along with increasing demand for packaged fresh food products is all time high. In emerging markets where super and hypermarkets are expanding very rapidly, the demand for high barrier materials, active packaging, intelligent packaging, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), active packaging with antibacterial activity for increasing shelf life of processed foods, nanotechnology and digital print for packaging is rising extraordinarily. This is precisely due to the growing awareness of health conscious consumers towards safety and demand for processed foods with extended shelf life. Packaging industry in India is one of the fast growing industries which has its influence on all the other industries directly or indirectly.

Recently, nanotechnology has been significantly increasing its impact on the food and beverage packaging industry by altering the structure of the materials on the molecular scale, to give the materials desired properties which can significantly enhance the shelf life, efficiently preserve flavour and colour as well as facilitate transportation and usage. Nanotechnology applications for food contact materials / matrices (FCM) and food packaging constitute the largest share of the market for applications in the food sector. Nano-structured film can effectively prevent the food from the invasion of microorganisms and ensure the food safety. Sensors can alarm us before the food goes rotten or can inform us the exact nutrition status contained in the contents. Active FCMs generally incorporate nanoparticles with antimicrobial or oxygen scavenging properties whereas Intelligent food packaging can incorporate nanosensors to monitor and report the condition of the food. Based on the antimicrobial action of nanosilver, a number of active FCMs have been developed that are claimed to preserve the foods for longer period by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. Examples include “FresherLonger™ Miracle Food Storage Containers” and “FresherLonger™ Plastic Storage Bags” from Sharper Image® USA, “Nano Silver Food Containers” from A-DO Korea and “Nano Silver Baby Milk Bottle” from Baby Dream® Co. Ltd. (South Korea). The embedded sensors in a packaging film can detect food-spoilage organisms and trigger a colour change to alert the consumer about the end of the shelf life. One of the examples is Nano Bioswitch/“Release-on-Command” system that releases a preservative if food begins to spoil. Nanoscale-sensing devices are also being developed that will enable the food or food ingredients to be traced back to the source of origin.

25.3.10 Low calorie foods

The current trend towards a more health- and nutrition-conscious lifestyle has encouraged the development of low calorie foods. The non-nutritive sweetener market has been predicted to reach $500 million by the year 2000. A new class of compounds called taste-active proteins functions as sweeteners and flavor modifiers and includes compounds such as aspartame, thaumatin, and monellin. The gene which codes for the protein thaumatin has been isolated and characterized. Transfer of this gene into bacteria would allow the production of thaumatin via fermentation. If engineered into plants, new and unique foods could be developed. Another application of biotechnology in low calorie food production is the development of low calorie fats and oils. Genetically inducing the production of shorter chain fatty acids in soybean or rapeseed would speed the development of a low calorie vegetable oil. The market for this oil could reach $2 billion a year by the end of the next decade.

25.3.11 Diagnostic tests for food safety and quality assurance

Detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria in foods is extremely important for ensuring the safety of food supplies as well as for confirming food-related outbreaks. However, microbial detection and identification is a challenge. First of all, high sensitivities are required for preliminary enrichment and subsequent isolation steps that separate the microorganisms from the foods. Secondly, high specificities are needed for microbial identification to rule out the possibility of false positive and false negative results. The identification step can effectively separate the target pathogens from the background microflora. In this context, the conventional methods based on microbiological culturing and metabolic activation have been traditionally used for analysis of foods in dairy industry across the world. The conventional methods of pathogen identification and confirmation based on culturing on selective medium, biochemical tests and immunological assays are extremely laborious, cumbersome and many times remain inconclusive and results are invariably delayed to make them virtually redundant for any follow up corrective actions. However, with the advancements in Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, new innovative molecular and immunological techniques have also been developed and applied in specialized food laboratories in advanced countries like USA and Europe for assessing the microbiological quality and safety of foods. Some of these rapid assays based on molecular techniques such as PCR and Real Time based diagnostics, Immunological assays, biosensors and enzyme based kits etc. are considered to be more reliable and rapid for quick detection of pathogens.

25.3.12 Biosensors

Biosensors represent analytical new generation of powerful tools incorporating biologically derived material or biomimic with a physiochemical transducer or transducing microsystem. Biosensors are currently being explored for a wide range of applications in food industry. The techniques based on Biosensors are being developed for rapid direct or indirect detection of foodborne microorganisms, toxins, or undesirable metabolites or other compounds. These systems have a potential application in real-time validation of critical control points. Sensitive, specific and rapid processes have been developed that require minimal culture enrichment and utilize immuno-based biosensors, such as imunomagnetic-electrochemiluminescence to detect pathogenic microorganisms in food systems. Immuno-based biosensors to detect low levels of E. coli 0157 and Salmonella within 2-8 hrs are being used in meat and poultry plants as well as in dairy industry. New technologies such as acoustic wave biosensors and radio frequency identification (RFID) sensor tags promise to greatly improve food safety. Research to develop a single computer chip that will automatically assess food safety at any point from source to consumption is ongoing. The advanced biosensor based systems have the advantage to be integrated into the processing line for monitoring the possible contaminants and pathogens on line during different food processing stages so that follow up action could be taken immediately.

25.4 Impact of Biotechnology in Food Industry

In the backdrop of growing human population at an alarming rate in third world countries including India and the ensuing poverty that continue to daunt the countries, the demand for food and nutritional security has increased dramatically. As a result of this, the role of food industry has become extremely pertinent in producing high quality nutritious and wholesome foods which are safe and cost effective to cater to the needs of their vast respective populations. The application of traditional biotechnology in food industry has been in vogue for quite some time and has made a significant impact on commercial production and processing of foods by improving the fermentation efficiency of the micro-organisms through optimization of processing parameters to produce the desired quality of food products. The most recent application of modern biotechnology to food industry is the genetic modification (GM) also known as genetic engineering/genetic manipulation/gene technology or recombinant DNA technology. The aims are to increase the range and quality of products available, to reduce their price and to protect the environment. Biotechnology has already made a strong impact on food and dairy industry by improving the nutritional quality, shelf life and safety of processed foods with lot of value addition for different applications including health benefits. By adopting new advancements and innovations in modern biotechnology such as rDNA technology, transgenics, animal/plant cloning, tissue culture and improved bioprocess engineering tools, food industry can benefit immensely through not only improving the yield and quality of the processed foods but also bringing in lot of product diversification by producing novel foods customized for specific consumers. Application of biotechnology in true letter and spirit is likely to revolutionize the concept of food processing in the Indian food industry and hence can make a dramatic influence on our lives and that of future generations if used properly and judiciously. However, preceding the advent of such products onto the market, questions were being raised about their safety, labeling, need and ethics. The use of modern biotechnology (recombinant DNA technology) to produce foods and food ingredients is a subject of heightened discussions and controversy among consumers and public policy makers, and within the scientific community and hence can have lot of impact on the industry and the consumers from the health benefits and safety perspectives.

25.4.1 Biotechnological interventions in food processing

Since proteins and vitamins are often lost in traditional food processing, fermentation processes may offer a way to preserve them. Biotechnology can be used for the upgrading of traditional food processing based on fermentation such as the procedures used to produce high quality, nutritious and wholesome fermented foods such as traditional dairy based products like dahi, lassi, shrikhand and nondairy products like gari, a fermented, gritty and starchy food derived from cassava. Biotechnology can also help to eliminate toxic components, either by genetic engineering or through food processing. In addition to eliminating unwanted components, biotechnology can be used for the inexpensive production of additives that increase the nutritive value of the final product or that improve its flavour, texture or appearance. Present-day applications of biotechnology in food processing are far more advanced than applications in the field of plant genetic engineering. The genetic manipulation of micro-organisms used in food processing is considerably easier than the manipulation of more complex plants. It is, therefore. intriguing that research centers primarily on plant genetic engineering, where there are still many obstacles to overcome, while the chance to improve food processing is largely neglected.

25.4.2 Current status of biotechnology in food processing - food fermentations

Microorganisms are an integral part of the processing system during the production of fermented foods. Microbial cultures can be genetically improved using both traditional and molecular approaches, and improvement of bacteria, yeasts and moulds is the subject of much academic and industrial research. Traits which have been considered for commercial food applications in both developed and developing countries include sensory quality (flavour, aroma, visual appearance, texture and consistency), bacteriophage resistance in the case of dairy fermentations, and the ability to produce antimicrobial compounds (e.g. bacteriocins, hydrogen peroxide) for the inhibition of undesirable microorganisms. In many developing countries, the focus is on the degradation or inactivation of natural toxins (e.g. cyanogenic glucosides in cassava), mycotoxins (in cereal fermentations) and anti-nutritional factors (e.g. phytates).

Biotechnology has also been extensively explored in the production of enzymes for application in raw and processed foods. In the past, enzymes were isolated primarily from plant and animal sources, and thus a relatively limited number of enzymes were available to the food processor at a high cost. Today, bacteria and fungi are exploited and used for the commercial production of a diversity of enzymes. Several strains of microorganisms have been selected or genetically modified to increase the efficiency with which they produce enzymes. In most cases, the modified genes are of microbial origin, although they may also come from different kingdoms. For example, the DNA coding for chymosin, an enzyme found in the stomach of bovine and buffalo calves, that causes milk to curdle during the production of cheese, has been successfully cloned into yeasts (Kluyveromyces lactis/Pichia pastoris), bacteria (Escherichia coli) and moulds (Aspergillus niger var. awamori). Chymosin produced by these recombinant microorganisms is currently commercially produced and is widely used in cheese manufacture. Genetic technologies have not only improved the efficiency with which enzymes can be produced, but they have increased their availability, reduced their cost and improved their quality. This has had the beneficial impact of increasing efficiency and streamlining processes which employ the use of enzymes as processing aids in the food industry.

25.4.3 Some issues relevant to developing countries

Biotechnological research as applied to bioprocessing in the majority of developing countries, targets development and improvement of traditional fermentation processes. In this context, some areas specifically relevant to developing countries as listed below need to be looked into before adopting advanced biotechnological tools in the food processing industry.

25.4.3.1 Socio-economic and cultural factors

Traditional fermentation processes employed in most developing countries are low input, appropriate food processing technologies with minimal investment requirements. They make use of locally produced raw materials and are an integral part of village life. These processes are, however, often uncontrolled, unhygienic and inefficient and generally result in products of variable quality and short shelf lives. Traditional fermented foods like dahi, srikhand and butter milk etc., nevertheless, find wide consumer acceptance in developing countries and contribute substantially to food security and nutrition. Applications of biotechnology to fermented foods can have a strong impact on these socio-economic and cultural factors.

25.4.3.2 Infrastructural and logistical factors

Physical infrastructural requirements for the manufacture, distribution and storage (e.g. by refrigeration) of microbial cultures or enzymes on a continuous basis is generally available in urban areas of many developing countries. However, this is not the case in most rural areas of developing countries. Should research be oriented to ensure that individuals at all levels can benefit from applications of biotechnology in food fermentation processes, i.e. should logistical arrangements for starter culture development be integrated into biotechnological research targeting improvement of traditional fermentations? What is required for the level of fermentation technologies and process controls to be upgraded in order to increase efficiency, yields and the quality and safety of fermented foods in developing countries?

25.4.3.3 Nutrition and food safety

Fermentation processes enhance the nutritional value of foods through the biosynthesis of vitamins, essential amino acids and proteins, through improving protein and fibre digestibility; enhancing micronutrient bioavailability and degrading antinutritional factors. Many bacteria in fermented foods also exhibit functional properties (probiotics). The safety of fermented food products is enhanced through reduction of toxic compounds, such as mycotoxins and cyanogenic glucosides, and production of antimicrobial factors, such as bacteriocins, carbon dioxide, hydrogen peroxide and ethanol, which facilitate inhibition or elimination of food-borne pathogens. Are the nutritional characteristics (and safety aspects) of fermented foods adequately documented and appreciated in developing countries? Is there a need for consumer education about the benefits of fermented foods?

25.4.3.4 Intellectual property rights (IPRs)

The processes used in the more advanced areas of agricultural biotechnology tend to be covered by IPRs and these rights tend to be owned by parties in developed countries. This applies also to biotechnology processes used in food processing. On the other hand, many of the traditional fermentation processes applied in developing countries are based on traditional knowledge. In addition to biotechnology processes, microbial strains may also be the object of IPRs. For example, an era of massive private investment in biotechnology was initiated when the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1980 (in the Diamond versus Chakrabarty case) that a live GM bacterium (of the genus Pseudomonas, modified to degrade components of crude oil) could be patented. Many of the microorganisms associated with traditional fermentation processes in developing countries are unique. Issues of ownership will become increasingly important as bacterial strains are characterized and starter cultures are developed in developing countries.

25.5 Commercial Opportunities

Biotechnological innovations have greatly assisted in industrializing production of certain indigenous fermented foods. Indonesian tempe and Oriental soy sauce are well known examples of indigenous fermented foods that have been industrialized and marketed globally. The results of biotechnology research will lead to fermented foods of improved quality, safety and consistency. Should biotechnology developments in developing countries target commercialization? Should they target diversification into new value-added products? Should biotechnology development be linked to technological developments in food processing? Can the application of biotechnology to food processing allow farmers in developing countries to add value to their agricultural products (for export or for local consumption) and improve their revenues?

Biotechnology has already made a strong impact on food and dairy industry by improving the nutritional quality, shelf life and safety of processed foods with lot of value addition for different applications including health benefits. By adopting new advancements and innovations in modern biotechnology such as rDNA technology, transgenics, animal/plant cloning, tissue culture and improved bioprocess engineering tools, food industry can benefit immensely though not only improving the yield and quality of the processed foods but also bringing in lot of product diversification by producing novel foods customized for specific consumers. Application of biotechnology in true letter and spirit is likely to revolutionize the concept of food processing in the Indian food industry and hence can make a dramatic influence on our lives and that of future generations if used properly and judiciously.

Biotechnology undoubtedly has a potential role in food processing industry in India and other developing countries and hence can help in meeting the food and nutritional security effectively. Judicious use of modern biotechnology tools and strategies could be extremely valuable not only to increase the food production for the growing population but also can aid in improving the processing quality, taste, nutritional value, texture, shelf life, marketability and added advantages of having medicinal properties for various ailments, thereby, enhancing the commercial value of these foods considerably. The resurgence of concept of functional foods and nutraceuticals for health applications gained momentum at the global level through biotechnological applications. These value added biotech based farm products tailored to processing industries certainly can increase farmers and processors revenue, at the same time satisfying the consumer preferences. Biotechnology has tremendous potential for increasing food production and improving food processing although the real impact will only be felt after a few decades and it will differ from country to country. Nevertheless, biotechnology can have a dramatic impact on the food processing industry in developing countries like India by not only improving the efficiency of food processing but also through value addition and product diversification for catering to the needs of both domestic market and their exports. Additionally, biotechnology interventions in the food chain of agriculture and food processing sectors can generate lot of employment opportunities in the country. By producing safe, high quality, nutritious wholesome and healthy foods within reach of common consumers, biotechnology can help in creating a healthy society and can tremendously boost the growth, productivity and economic status of India at the global level.

References

Internet resources