Environmental Engg.

Lesson-26 Characteristics of solid waste

Physical characteristics

Information and data on the physical characteristics of solid wastes are important for the selection and operation of equipment and for the analysis and design of disposal facilities.  The following physical characteristics are to be studied in detail.

Density

Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m³), is a critical factor in the design of a solid waste management system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection and transport vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of 100 kg/m³ to 400 kg/m³. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its compacted state than when it is uncompacted.  Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves from source to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the weather, vibration in the collection vehicle and decomposition

Moisture content

Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight - dry weight) to the total wet weight of the waste. Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition, moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes should be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water. We can calculate the moisture percentage, using the formula given below

\[Moisture content(%)=\frac{Wet\cdot weight-Dry\cdot weight}{Wet \cdot weight}x 100\]

A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%, representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the wet season of a region of high precipitation. However, values greater than 40% are not uncommon.  Climatic conditions apart, moisture content is generally higher in low income countries because of the higher proportion of food and yard waste.

Size of Waste constituents

The size distribution of waste constituents in the waste stream is important because of its significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredder and waste treatment process. This varies widely and while designing a system, proper analysis of the waste characteristics should be carried out.

Calorific Value

Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as kcal/kg. The calorific value is determined experimentally using Bomb calorimeter in which the heat generated at a constant temperature of 25^OC from the combustion of a dry sample is measured.

The physical properties that are essential to analyse of wastes disposed at landfills are:

Field capacity

The field capacity of municipal solid waste is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the wastes.

Permeability of compacted wastes

The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property because it governs the movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material include pore size distribution, surface area and porosity. Porosity represents the amount of voids per unit total volume of material. The porosity of municipal solid waste varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and composition of the waste.

Compressibility

It is the degree of physical changes of the suspended solids or filter cake when subjected to pressure.

Chemical characteristics

Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential for the proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the waste management system. The products of decomposition and heating values are two examples of chemical characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any other purpose, we must know their chemical characteristics, including the following

Chemical: Chemical characteristics include pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (N-P-K), total Carbon, C/N ratio, calorific value.

Bio-Chemical: Bio-Chemical characteristics include carbohydrates, proteins, natural fibre, and biodegradable factor.

Toxic: Toxicity characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides, Toxicity test for Leachates (TCLP), etc.

 Lipids

This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease.  Lipids have high calorific values, about 38000 kcal/kg, which makes waste with a high lipid content suitable for energy recovery processes. Since lipids in the solid state become liquid at temperatures slightly above ambient, they add to the liquid content during waste decomposition. They are biodegradable but because they have a low solubility in waste, the rate of biodegradation is relatively slow.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are found primarily in food and yard waste. They include sugars and polymers of sugars such as starch and cellulose and have the general formula (CH₂O)_X. Carbohydrates are readily  biodegraded to products such as carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposing carbohydrates are particularly attractive for flies and rats and for this reason should not be left exposed for periods longer than is necessary.

Proteins

Proteins are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH₂). They are found mainly in food and garden wastes and comprise 5-10% of the dry solids in solid waste. Proteins decompose to form amino acids but partial decomposition can result in the production of amines, which have intensely unpleasant odours.

Natural fibres

This class includes the natural compounds, cellulose and lignin, both of which are resistant to biodegradation. They are found in paper and paper products and in food and yard waste. Cellulose is a larger polymer of glucose while lignin is composed of a group of monomers of which benzene is the primary member.  Paper, cotton and wood products are 100%, 95% and 40% cellulose respectively.  Since they are highly combustible, solid waste having a high proportion of paper and wood products, are suitable for incineration. The calorific values of ovendried paper products are in the range 12000 – 18000 kcal/kg and of wood about 20000 kcal/kg, which compare with 44200 kcal/kg for fuel oil.

Synthetic organic material (Plastics)

They are highly resistant to biodegradation and, therefore, are objectionable and of special concern in solid waste management. Hence the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce the proportion of this waste component at disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating value, about 32,000 kJ/kg, which make them very suitable for incineration. But, one should note that polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt, produces dioxin and acid gas. The latter increases corrosion in the combustion system and is responsible for acid rain.

Non-combustibles:

This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids.

Heating value

 An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for incineration requires a determination of its heating value, expressed as kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg). The heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter test, in which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of 25°C from the combustion of a dry sample is measured. Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water (100°C), the combustion water remains in the liquid state. However, during combustion, the temperature of the combustion gases reaches above 100°C, and the resultant water is in the vapour form.  While evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy recovery, one has to consider the heating values of respective constituents. 

Ultimate analysis

This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and it is done to perform mass balance calculation for a chemical or thermal process. Besides, it is necessary to determine ash fraction because of its potentially harmful environmental effects, brought about by the presence of toxic metals such as cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, lead, tin and zinc. One should note that other metals (e.g., iron, magnesium, etc.) may also be present but they are non-toxic.

The following table shows an ultimate analysis of a typical municipal solid waste

Element	Range (% dry weight)
Carbon	25-30
Hydrogen	2.5-6.0
Oxygen	15-30
Nitrogen	0.25-1.2
Sulphur	0.02-0.12
Ash	12-30

Proximate analysis

This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes or a waste or refuse derived fuel. The fractions of interest are:

• moisture content, which adds weight to the waste without increasing its heating value, and the evaporation of water reduces the heat released from the fuel;

• ash, which adds weight without generating any heat during combustion;

• volatile matter, i.e., that portion of the waste that is converted to gases before and during combustion;

• fixed carbon, which represents the carbon remaining on the surface grates as charcoal. A waste or fuel with a high proportion of fixed carbon requires a longer retention time on the furnace grates to achieve complete combustion than a waste or fuel with a low proportion of fixed carbon.

The following table shows an proximate analysis of a typical municipal solid waste

Components	Value (%)
	Range	Typical
Moisture	15-40	20
Volatile matter	40-60	53
Fixed carbon	5-12	7
Glass, metal, ash	15-30	20