LESSON 11. Biodiversity - Values and threats

Values of biodiversity

Environmental services from species and ecosystems are essential at global, regional and local levels. Production of oxygen, reducing carbon dioxide, maintaining the water cycle, protecting soil are important services. Biodiversity is the base of the country’s food security. The global climate change effects due to the loss of biodiversity is now acknowledged by many countries. The word ‘national security’ now includes one another critical aspect of security : that of safeguarding the natural ‘floor’ on which all of us stand – fresh air, clean water and productive land, without which we would perish. Most of the damages caused by Orissa’s killer cyclone, water scarcity in many parts even in high rainfall area like Cherrapunji, highly productive lands becoming unproductive in Punjab, Haryana and eastern UP, huge acres of crops threatened as the natural enemies of their pests have been killed, crops prone to pest and diseases due to the replacement of earlier diversity of crop varieties by monoculture, thousands of people facing severe health problems etc and many other consequences are a result of the loss of biodiversity that India has witnessed. Conservation of biodiversity makes good economic sense but also that it is important to the region`s citizens in ways that go beyond adequate economic measures. The loss of diversity is not only an ethical tragedy, but also a great social, economic and cultural one.

At the Earth summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, most of the governments of the World signed a global Convention on Biological Diversity. By 1993 enough nations had ratified the Convention that it entered into force as international law. The Convention recognizes  the conservation of biodiversity as a "common concern of humankind " due to its intrinsic values and its importance to people. The Convention asserts that governments are responsible for conserving their biological diversity and using biological resources in a sustainable manner. The Biological Diversity Bill, introduced in Indian Parliament in 2000, had the beginnings of something that environmentalists, farmers and adivasis could feel hopeful about. It had the potential to start reversing the enormous decline in biodiversity and biological resources, provide security to the livelihood of those most dependent on such resources, protect traditional knowledge from the rampant piracy that had taken place for decades, provide a check to mindless industrialization by requiring biodiversity impact assessment, and empower local rural and urban communities to conserve the resources in their regions. The Bill became law in 2002. But, the foremost importance is the need to instill in the minds of India’s planners and decision makers, the critical value of biodiversity. It is, first of all, a moral imperative to protect nature, not least of all because we ourselves evolved from it, and because all species have a right to survive. Biodiversity is the backbone of the livelihood of the majority of India’s population.

The range of values of biodiversity

Food, clothing, housing, energy, medicines are all resources that are directly or indirectly linked to the biological variety present in the biosphere. The preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and the long-term survival of mankind. This diversity of living organisms which is present in wilderness, as well as in our crops, and livestock play a major role in human development. The preservation of biodiversity is therefore integral to any strategy that aims at improving the quality of human life. The value of biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and aesthetic value is enormous. The multiple uses of biodiversity or biodiversity value has been classified by McNeely et al. in 1990 as follows: 1. Consumptive use value: Food, drugs and medicines, fuel; 2. Productive use value; 3. Social value; 4. Ethical value; 5. Aesthetic value; 6. Option values and 7. Ecosystem service value.

Direct-use values

Economists and biologists who measure the value of biodiversity categorize those values by how people benefit from them. In one such category are direct-use values, where people directly consume or use species for their benefit. The direct utilization of timber, food, fuel wood, fodder by local communities. The values of natural products for developing pharmaceuticals, for developing and maintaining the genetic basis for agriculture, and for supporting industries based on use species such as fisheries and timber extraction (World Resources Institute et al. 1992). With the growth of the use of biotechnology, the economic value of genetic material from natural sources is likely to rise.

Ecosystem services

Biodiversity are indirect values provided by ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystem, and the species that constitute them, sustain and fulfill human life (Daily 1997) . It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming. We could not survive without the basic services provided by natural systems. Many aspects of the stability, functioning and sustainability of ecosystem depend on biodiversity. The conservation and management of natural areas that maintain diverse woodlands, prairies, and aquatic systems will help assure the sustained production  of ecosystems services.

Economists have estimated that the value of ecosystem services and natural capital at the global level as $33 trillion per year, or approximately twice the global gross national  product (Constanza et al.,1997). Flooding in the region is directly associated with the loss of wetlands and other natural areas in the watershed that served to trap rainfall and store it, rather than dumping it in the river.

Recreation and aesthetics

Important factors in calculating the value of biodiversity are the recreational use of natural areas and the value that place on natural systems for aesthetics and as part of cultural heritage. People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as ‘eco-tourism’. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12 billion dollars of revenue annually, that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.

Apart from Ecotourism, active nature-based activities enjoyed by millions of the region`s residents include hiking, bird watching, fishing and photography. The high  levels of use of the region`s natural areas indicate the importance of these areas and their biodiversity to the quality of life in the region. Healthy natural areas are the key for biodiversity, and they provide unparalleled opportunities for the outdoor recreation that millions of people in the region want.

Non-use values           

A final type of values associated with biodiversity, and a type harder to quantify, is non-use values. Feelings of ethical obligation to protect other species from  extinction, religious  values associated with cherishing the earth and its inhabitants, and the desire to leave for future  generations that which we are able to enjoy these concerns are the core motives for protecting biodiversity. It is based on the concept of “all life must be preserved” and “Live and Let live”. If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is valuable.

Responsibility to future generations and a belief that nature is God`s creation were the two most common reasons people cited for caring about conservation of biodiversity (Biodiversity project1998). The importance of one`s natural heritage cannot be estimated in dollars. Nonetheless, there is value in the sense of discovery that comes to each new generation as it learns the essential facts of what came before.

Costs and benefits of protecting biodiversity

Protecting a public investment already made

Investments in public open space helped protect natural communities from total destruction, but absent the measures called for in this plan, investments will go steadily lose their valve. Major investments have provided an important foundation for protecting the aquatic environment, including biodiversity, but much remains to be done. A pragmatic argument for preserving biodiversity is that it protects and enhances the value of larger public investments already made in public land and facilities.

High replacement costs

One approach to placing a value on a natural community is to calculate its replacement costs. The value of particular species will be known only when it is not available. Much has been learned about how to restore or replicate original prairies and wetlands. The measures of success for such replications include both their natural sustainability and the extent of their biological diversity.

Cost of managing lands and waters                      

Costs of managing natural areas to sustain biodiversity vary with the type and condition of the site and with the availability of volunteers. These costs will also vary according to the phase or stage of restoration achieved. Two effective means of lowering management  costs are to use volunteers as part of the management program and to protect and manage larger areas.

Threats to Biodiversity

Due to human actions, ecosystem and species are threatened with destruction. Population explosion is the main cause for the loss of species and ecosystem. The threat to biodiversity stems mainly from: habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss; shrinking genetic diversity; invasive alien species; declining forest resource base; climate change and desertification; over exploitation of resources; impact of development projects; and impact of pollution. The constraints and challenges to biodiversity conservation which flow inter alia from these threats include: biodiversity information base; implementation of Biological Diversity Act and safeguarding traditional knowledge; new and emerging biotechnologies; economic valuation and natural resource accounting; policy, legal and administrative measures; and institutional support.

Habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss, and shrinking genetic diversity

Habitat destruction is identified as the main threat to biodiversity. The main causes of habitat loss are agricultural activities, extraction (including mining, fishing, logging and harvesting) and development (human settlement, industry and associated infrastructure). Under diverse natural conditions, over a billion people in rural and urban areas live in harmony and their pressing needs for food, fibre, shelter, fuel and fodder combined with compelling need for economic development exert enormous pressure on natural resources. The loss and fragmentation of natural habitats affects all animal and plant species. Various species of plants and animals are on the decline due to habitat fragmentation and overexploitation, e.g. habitats of Great Indian Bustard in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan, and of the Lion-tailed Macaque in Western Ghats. The habitat loss and degradation is affecting 89 % of all threatened birds, 83 % of mammals and 91 % of all threatened plants assessed globally.

Habitat fragmentation is also one of the primary reasons leading to cases of man animal conflict. Loss of habitats and over exploitation have led to depletion of genetic diversity of several wild animals and cultivated plants. Any species that requires a large home range, will not survive if the area is too small. The small land units are strongly affected by their surroundings, in terms of climate, dispersing species etc. Conserving the flagship large animal species (such as the lion, tiger, rhino and elephant) has also attracted the concern that these projects should aim at broadening the genetic base (gene pool) in breeding populations besides focusing on habitat protection. The decisive factor in saving critically endangered species is individuals rather than their total number which may include the non-breeding individuals also.

About 150 crops feed most of the human population at present, but just 12 of them provide 80% of food energy (with wheat, rice, maize and potato alone providing 60%). Also, about 30 mammalian and bird species are used extensively, but just 15 of them account for over 90 per cent of global livestock production.

Wild species, related closely to their cultivated forms, are valued by plant breeders for obtaining genes for resistance to virulent diseases and tolerance to stresses like drought, salinity and temperature. Continuing evolutionary development of these valuable species depends on adequate genetic diversity in their natural populations. Increasing fragmentation, degradation and loss of their habitats over the years have seriously limited their availability and threatened thier survival.

Declining natural resource base and overexploitation of resources

India is endowed with diverse forest types ranging from the tropical wet evergreen forests in North East to the tropical thorn forests in the Central and Western India. The forests of the country can be divided into 5 major groups based on climatic factors. These major groups have been further divided into 16 forest types based on temperature and they are further divided into several sub groups and type groups leading to 202 forest types and sub types based on location specific climatic factor and plant species constitution.

Tropical forests are so important because they harbor atleast 50 % of the world’s biodiversity. Forests face threats on account of diversion of forest land for agriculture, industry, human settlements, and other developmental projects. Construction of roads and canals, quarrying, shifting cultivation and encroachments are other threats. Degradation of forests results from illicit felling, excess removal of forest products, fodder, fuelwood, forest floor litter, over gazing and forest fires. As a result, some of the floristic and faunal components, including many keystone and endemic forest species are now left with a narrow eroding populations which need to be urgently conserved. A keystone species is one whose presence or absence both directly or indirectly influence other species through food web connectivity.

The rich diversity of medicinal plants (over 6500 species) in the country needs conservation and sustainable utilization, as their habitats are either degraded or the species are being overexploited.

Invasive Alien Species

Among the major threats faced by native plant and animal species (and their habitats), the one posed by the invasive alien species is truly scaring since it is considered second only to that of the habitat loss. Alien invasive species are a significant threat affecting 350 (30 % of all threatened) birds and 361 (15 % of all threatened) plant species. Islands are particularly susceptible to invasions of alien species.

Over Hunting:

Over-hunting has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammals. Over-harvesting for food, fashion and profit causes the most extinction of rare species over the past several hundred of years. Commercial hunting of legal nature and illegal poaching are the principal threats. When regulated by law and strict enforcement, sport or recreational hunting causes no endangerment of species.

Climate Change and Desertification

The global level climate change has its impact on the species and ecosystems. The climate is the main reason for the distribution of species (biogeography) and the climate change will imbalance these distributions thereby affecting the plants and animals. It is believed that the ecosystems with undiminished species diversity, and species with their genetic diversity intact, are likely to be in a much better position to face the impact of climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in its summary report released in February, 2007, has estimated huge loss of biodiversity for biodiversity-rich mega-diverse countries such as India, because of higher greenhouse gas emissions. Targeted research on impacts of climate change on forest types, eco-sensitive zones, crop yields and biodiversity is required under the changing climatic regime.

Impact of Development Projects

Large infrastructural and industrial projects, including highways, rural road network, and the special economic zones (SEZs), are coming up. With cities and townships expanding, often at the cost of agriculture, and agriculture expanding at the cost of tree cover, fresh threats to biodiversity are emerging.

Although India's  per hectare use of pesticide is very low as compared with many other countries, pesticide residues in land, water and food have been detected over the last three decades.

Biodiversity Information Base

So far, almost 70% of the country's land area has been surveyed and around 46,000 species of plants and 89,000 species of animals have been described. It is estimated that about 400,000 more species may exist in India which need to be recorded and described. The baseline data on species and genetic diversity, and their macro-and micr0-habitats, is inadequate. Further, although, a number of organizations/agencies are working on various aspects of biodiversity, the information on the subject is scattered and not yet integrated into a national database. Some of the databases being developed are not upto the standard, primarily because of lack of infrastructure, skilled manpower and coordination among experts in different fields. The different sectoral networks therefore need to establish a nationwide information system with a uniform format for collection, retrieval and dissemination of data.

Reference: DRAFT NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ACTION PLAN, Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests 2007.

Last modified: Wednesday, 4 December 2013, 5:59 AM