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Course overview |
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Syllabus |
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Topic 1 |
Learning objectives |
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Definition |
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Anatomical divisions of the nervous system |
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Afferent fibres |
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Efferent fibres |
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Divisions of the ANS |
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Comparison |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 2 |
Learning objectives |
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Predominant Sympathetic or Parasympathetic Tone in various structures |
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Distribution of cholinergic and adrenergic neurons |
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Selected Effects On Different Organs |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 3 |
Learning objectives |
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Chronological events of scientific exploration (Neurohumoral transmission) |
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Neurohumoral transmission |
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Axonal conduction |
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Event in the generation of action potential |
Event in the generation of action potential |
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Synthesis and release of neurotransmitter |
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Receptor events |
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Co - transmission |
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Catabolism of neurotransmitters |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 4 |
Learning objectives |
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Cholinergic neurotransmission |
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Synthesis, storage and destruction of acetylcholine |
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Ach synthesis |
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True and Pseudo acetylcholinesterases |
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Hydrolysis of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 5 |
Learning objectives |
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Cholinergic receptors |
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Muscarinic receptors |
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Muscarinic receptor subtypes |
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Nicotinic receptors |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 6 |
Learning objectives |
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Cholinergic drugs |
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Classification of cholinergic drugs |
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Pharmacological effects of choline esters |
Choline esters Acetylcholine is a transmitter that is essential for the maintenance of body homeostasis. But, it is not used therapeutically as (1) acetylcholine acts simultaneously at various sites without any selectivity and (2) the duration of action is very brief. Structure activity relationship: 1. Electrostatic bond exists between cationic group of acetylcholine and the anionic site of the receptor 2. Dipolar binding of ester of acetylcholine with the esterophilic site of the receptor 3. Hydrophobic bonds probably exist between the various methyl groups and adjacent proteins of the receptor surface. Choline esters contain a quaternary nitrogen atom to which three methyl groups are attached. This is required for a direct potent action on cholinergic receptor. It carries a positive charge. The cationic group electrostatically binds with a negatively charged site of the cholinergic receptor. The anionic site in the receptor is the main determinant of receptor events. Interaction of the cationic head of acetylcholine with this anionic site is the primary instigator of conformational changes that lead to alteration in membrane permeability. Cholinesterase has a site similar to cholinergic receptor that combines with the ester component of acetylcholine. This is called esteratic site in cholinesterase and its combination with the carboxyl group of the ester results in hydrolysis of the ester. When acetylcholine combines with the esterophilic site of the receptor no such hydrolysis takes place. These esterophilic sites are arranged somewhat differently in the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors and therefore influence the specificity of the agonist and antagonist drugs. Acetylcholine is the prototype cholinergic drug. In general the muscarinic effects are dominant in small doses and nicotinic effects are dominant in large doses. |
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Directly acting cholinomimetics |
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Cholinomimetic alkaloids |
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Therapeutic uses of choline esters |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 7 |
Learning objectives |
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Anticholinesterases |
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Classification |
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Reversible anticholine esterase agents |
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Therapeutic uses |
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Mechanism of action of organophosphorus compounds |
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Irreversible Anticholinesterase Agents |
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Symptoms of OPC poisoning |
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Treatment of OPC poisoning |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 8 |
Learning objectives |
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Cholinergic antagonists |
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Classification |
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Non-selective muscarinic receptor antagonists |
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Natural alkaloids |
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Pharmacokinetics |
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Semisynthetic and synthetic antimuscarinic drugs |
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Selective Muscarinic Receptor Antagonisis |
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Pharmacological effects |
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Toxicity of atropine |
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Therapeutic uses |
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Nicotine |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 9 |
Learning objectives |
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Adrenergic Pharmacology |
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Catecholamines |
Catecholamines Catecholamines are agents that contain OH group in both 3rd and 4th positions of the benzene ring. 3, 4, dihydroxybenzene is called catechol and hence the drugs that have this structure are called catecholamines. Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine are known as endogenous catecholamines. Isoproterenol is also a catecholamine. Epinephrine (EPI), norepinephrine (NE) and isproterenol exhibit varying agonistic actions on the adrenoceptors. EPI ≥ NE >> ISO → alpha adrenergic – contraction of smooth muscle ISO > EPI > NE → beta adrenergic – relaxation of smooth muscle |
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Synthesis of catecholamines |
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Catecholamine synthesis |
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Effects of catecholamines |
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Structure activity relationship |
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Difference between catecholamines and non catecholamines |
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Catecholamine - Adrenaline |
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Catecholamine - Noradrenaline |
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Catecholamine - Dopamine |
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Catecholamine - Isoprenaline |
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Pharmacological actions |
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Non - Catecholamines - Amphetamine |
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Non - Catecholamine - Ephedrine |
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Non - Catecholamine - Pseudoephedrine |
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Therapeutic uses |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 10 |
Learning objectives |
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Adrenergic drugs |
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Adrenoceptors |
Adrenoceptors Pharmacological effects of adrenergic drugs are mediated by activation of adrenergic receptors. Two types of adrenergic receptors were proposed to explain the dissimilar effects of sympathomimetic agents in different tissues. They are α and β receptors. The α and β receptors are differentiated pharmacologically, initially based on the relative properties of catecholamines namely epinephrine, norepinephrine and isoproterenol. |
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Adrenergic receptors and adrenergic responses |
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Subtypes of adrenoceptors |
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Classification of Sympathomimetic drugs |
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Classification of adrenergic agonist |
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α1 - adrenergic receptor agonists |
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α2 - adrenergic receptor agonists |
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β1- adrenergic receptor agonists |
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β2- adrenergic receptor agonists |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 11 |
Learning objectives |
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Antiadrenergic drugs / Adrenergic antagonists |
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Adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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α receptor antagonists |
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Non - selective α-adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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Selective α- adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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β-adrenergic receptors antagonists |
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Non selective β-adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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Selective β- adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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α and β- adrenergic receptor antagonists |
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Therapeutic uses |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 12 |
Learning objectives |
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Adrenergic neuron blocking drugs |
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Drugs that affect noradrenaline synthesis |
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Drugs that affect noradrenaline storage |
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Drugs that affect noradrenaline release |
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Drugs that inhibit noradrenaline reuptake |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 13 |
Learning objectives |
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Drugs Acting On Autonomic Ganglia |
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Ganglionic stimulants |
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Pharmacological actions of ganglionic stimulants |
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Ganglionic blockers |
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Pharmacological actions of ganglionic blockers |
Synthetic autonomic ganglionic blockers Bis quaternary compounds – Hexamethonium ,Pentamethonium Non-bis quaternary compounds – Pempidine |
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Autonomic Pharmacology of the Eye |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 14 |
Learning objectives |
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Autacoids |
- Autacoids are a group of diverse substances produced by a wide variety of cells in the body.
- The term autacoid is derived from Greek word meaning “Self remedy” (Autos – self, akos – remedy or healing substance).
- These substances have intense biological activity.
- They generally act locally (within inflammatory pockets) at the site of their synthesis and release.
- They are also known as local hormones.
- These substances differ from the other hormones in the following points.
1. Hormones are produced by specific cells while autacoids, are produced by a wide variety of cells. 2. Hormones are transported through circulation to act at distant target organ while autacoids act at the site of synthesis and release. 3. Hormones generally act slowly while autacoids act fast. |
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Histamine |
- Histamine is a tissue amine derived from the word histos meaning “tissue”.
- Histamine is present in animal tissues and certain plants (stinging nettle).
- This autacoid is a mediator of hypersensitivity phenomenon and tissue injury reactions.
- It is stored in storage granules of mast cells (tissue phagocytes) and basophils.
- Tissues rich in histamine are skin, gastric and intestinal mucosa, lungs, liver and placenta.
- Non-mast cell histamine occurs in the brain, epidermis, gastric mucosa and growing region.
- The turnover of mast cell histamine is slow, while that of non-mast cell is fast.
- Histamine is also present in blood, most body secretions, venom and pathological fluids.
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Synthesis, storage and destruction of histamine |
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Histamine receptors |
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Pharmacological action |
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Effect of histamine on BP |
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Pathophysiological roles |
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Uses of histamine |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 15 |
Learning objectives |
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Classification of antihistamines |
- The term antihistaminics generally mean the conventional antihistaminics that are antagonistic to the H1 receptors. H1 receptors are present in the bronchial, intestinal and vascular smooth muscles.
- The conventional antihistaminics block the actions of histamine competitively at the H1 receptors.
- They are classified as H1 and H2 antagonists
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Pharmacological actions of antihistamines |
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Pharmokinetics |
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Side effects and toxicity |
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Clinical uses |
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H2 receptor antagonist |
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Pharmacological actions |
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Clinical uses |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 16 |
Learning objectives |
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5 - HYDROXY TRYPTAMINE ( 5-HT, SEROTONIN ) - Enteramine |
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Synthesis and metabolism of serotonin |
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Pharmacological actions |
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5-HT receptors, agonists and antagonists |
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Clinical uses of 5HT antagonists |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 17 |
Learning objectives |
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Lipid derived autacoids |
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Biosynthesis and degradation of eicosanoids |
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Pharmacological actions and Pathophysiological role |
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Side effects of prostaglandins |
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Clinical uses of prostaglandins |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 18 |
Learning objectives |
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Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID) |
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Mechanism of action |
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Classification and pharmacokinetics of NSAIDs |
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Individual NSAIDs |
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Beneficial effects and toxicity |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 19 |
Learning objectives |
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kinins |
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Synthesis and Metabolism of kinins |
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Generation and degrdation of plasma kinins |
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pharmacological actions and clinical uses |
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Platelet activating factor |
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Pharmacological actions and pathophysiological |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 20 |
Learning objectives |
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Generation and degradation of angiotensin |
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Generation and degradation of angiotensin |
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Angiotensin receptors |
Angiotensin receptors |
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Actions of angiotensin |
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Homeostasis of renin- angiotensin system |
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Pathophysiological role of angiotensin II |
Pathophysiological role of angiotensinII |
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Inhibition of Renin - Angiotensin System |
Inhibition of Renin - Angiotensin System |
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ACE inhibitors |
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Clinical uses |
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Angiotensin antagonist |
Angiotensin antagonist |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 21 |
Learning objectives |
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Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology |
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Functions of the brain regions |
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Terms and definitions |
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Chemical messengers |
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Neurotransmitters in the CNS |
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Different neurotransmitters and their role in CNS |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 22 |
Learning objectives |
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Chronological events in development of anaesthetic agents |
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Principles of anaesthesiology |
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Preanaesthetic medication |
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Properties of an ideal general anaesthetic |
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Stages of anaesthesia |
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Theories of general anaesthetics |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 23 |
Learning objectives |
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Introduction |
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Chemistry of Local Anaesthetics |
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Mechanism of action |
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Pharmacokinetics and adverse effects |
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Types of local anaesthesia |
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Individual Local Anaesthetics |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 24 |
Learning objectives |
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Inhalant anaesthetics |
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MAC values of inhalational agents |
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Individual inhalant anaesthetic agents |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 25 |
Learning objectives |
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Uses, Advantages and Disadvantages of Intravenous Anaesthetics |
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Basic structure of barbiturate |
BASIC STRUCTURE OF BARBITURATE |
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Barbiturates - Structure Activity Relationship |
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Mechanism of action of barbiturates |
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Pharmacokinetics of barbiturates |
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Individual barbiturates and Propofol |
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Other intravenous anaesthetics |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 26 |
Learning objectives |
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Dissociative anaesthesia |
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Ketamine and other drugs |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 27 |
Learning objectives |
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Tranqualizer, Sedative and Hypnotic |
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Phenothiazines |
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Other groups of tranquilizers |
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α2 agonists |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 28 |
Learning objectives |
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Opioids - Introduction and chemistry |
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Basic opioid structure of morphine |
BASIC OPIOID STRUCTURE OF MORPHINE |
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Mechanism of action |
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Kinetics of opioids |
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Pharmacological effects of morphine |
Antinociception: - Severe cancer pain is tolerated more when morphine is given; relieves all types of pain, but most effective against continuous dull aching pain sharp, stabbing, shooting pain also relieved by morphine. When morphine is given to a pain free individual : - Morphine causes miosis (pinpoint pupils) due to kappa receptor effect - Pinpoint pupils show still responsive to bright light - Oculomotor nerve (Cranial Nerve 3) is stimulated by kappa receptor site - If kappa receptor is blocked, mydriasis from sigma effect will result - Atropine partially blocks effect indicating parasympathetic system involved - High doses (overdose situation) of morphine cause excitatory and spinal reflexes - High doses of many OPIOID agents cause convulsions due to stimulation at sigma receptor CNS- is the primary site of action of morphine. Morphine causes sedation effect, with no loss of consciousness,analgesia, euphoria, mood change mental cloudiness Depending on the dose and its primary and continuous depression of respiration leads to : decrease rate, decrease volume and decrease tidal exchange. CVS Morphine produces vasodilatation Morphine causes the release of histamine and Suppression of central adrenergic tone and Suppression of reflex vasoconstriction GIT Increase in tone and decrease in mobility leads to constipation Decreased concentration of HCl secretion Increased tone in stomach, small intestine, and large intestine delay of passage of food (gastric contents) so more reabsorption of water leading to constipation effect. On smooth muscles Biliary tract - marked increase in the pressure in the biliary tract - Increase due to contraction of Sphincter of Oddi urinary bladder - Tone of detrusor muscle increased, feel urinary urgency - Have urinary retention due to increased muscle tone where sphincter closed off Bronchial muscle Bronchoconstriction can result Contraindicated in asthmatics, particularly before surgery Uterus contraction of uterus can prolong labor Neuroendocrine effect Inhibit the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) Decreasing circulating concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), ACTH, and beta endorphin. TSH unaffected.
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PODCAST |
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Topic 29 |
Synthetic opioids |
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Uses of opioids |
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Opioid interactions |
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Species differences and toxicity |
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Opioid antagonists |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 30 |
Learning objectives |
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Definition |
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Classification |
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Neuromuscular junction |
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Mechanism of action |
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Pharmacokinetics |
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Pharmacological actions |
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Difference between competitive and non competitive neuromuscular blocker |
Difference |
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Individual neuromuscular blockers |
Individual neuromuscular blockers |
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Uses and toxicity |
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Interactions |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 31 |
Learning objectives |
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Central and direct acting muscle relaxants |
Central and direct acting muscle relaxants |
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Clinical uses of centrally acting muscle relaxants |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 32 |
Learning objectives |
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CNS depressants |
CNS depressants |
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CNS depressants mechanism of action |
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Anticonvulsants |
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General mechanism of anticonvulsant drugs |
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Side effects of anticonvulsant drugs |
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Drugs for doping |
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Drugs for euthanesia |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 33 |
Learning objectives |
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CNS stimulants |
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Convulsants |
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Analeptics |
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Psychostimulants |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 34 |
Learning objectives |
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Classification |
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Mechanism of action |
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Pharmacological actions |
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Features |
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Adverse effects |
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Uses |
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PODCAST |
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Topic 36 |
Equipment Required for Isolated Tissue Experiments |
Equipment Required for Isolated Tissue Experiments |
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Aerator |
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Writing /Recording levers |
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Different types of lever |
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Sherrington Rotating Drum/Kymograph |
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Student’s Physiograph |
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Topic 37 |
Physiological Salt solutions |
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Composition of some commonly used physiological salt solutions |
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Topic 38 |
Introduction |
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Aim |
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Procedure |
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Topic 39 |
Aim |
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Principle |
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Procedure |
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Topic 40 |
Principle |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
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Topic 41 |
Principle |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
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Topic 42 |
Principle |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
- Results: Date: Dose: Route: Time:
Animal Number (a) | Sex of the animal (b) | Weight of the animal (c ) | Time of application tail on the nichrome wire (d) | Time at which animal flicks the tail (e) | Normal Reaction time in seconds | Reaction time in seconds (Difference in time between e and d) | 30” | 60” | 90” | 120” | 180” | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | | | | | | | | | | |
/strong> |
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Topic 43 |
Principle |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
- Results: Date: Dose: Route: Time:
Animal Number (a) | Sex of the animal (b) | Weight of the animal (c ) | Time of at which the animal introduced into the hot plate (d) | Time at which animal tries to jump or licks the fore paws (e) | Normal Reaction time in seconds | Reaction time in seconds (Difference in time between e and d) | 30” | 60” | 90” | 120” | 180” | 1 | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | | | | | | | | | 6 | | | | | | | | | | |
/strong> |
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Topic 44 |
Procedure for convulsions induced by chemicals |
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Procedure for convulsions induced by electroshock |
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Topic 45 |
Principle |
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Righting reflex |
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Motor activity |
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Roto rod test |
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Traction test |
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Topic 46 |
Principle |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
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Topic 47 |
Principle |
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Inferences |
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Topic 48 |
Principle |
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Stages of anaesthesia |
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Procedure |
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Inference |
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Topic 49 |
Effect of drugs on neuro muscular junctions |
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Topic 50 |
Experiment with frog heart |
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Topic 51 |
EP-Dog |
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Topic 52 |
Experiment with ciliary body movement and rabbit eye responses |
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Topic 53 |
Question bank |
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Reference books |
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Acknowledgement |
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